5.2 Culture

Persian Literature

• $ Ijaz I Khusravi - talks about curriculum adopted by madrasas

Minhas Us Siraj - Tabaqat I Nasiri

• Nature and character of Muslim aristocracy, civil administration, organisation of court.
• ~ scholar of Islam under Qubacha, Iltutmish.
• KA Nizami has called his details of incidents truthful but is prejudiced in his causes and circumstances.
• Book 22 has biographical sketches of courtiers, military generals, governors from 1227 - 1259.

Ziauddin Barani - Tarik I Firoz Shahi and Fatwa I Jahandari

• Aristocrat, Turkish immigrant in Delhi under MBT, Associate of Amir Khusrau
• ~ Book Tarik I Firoz Shahi deals with Sultanate history from 1259-1359 from where Minhas had left.
• account of MBT unfair, biased and deliberate distortion of facts
• account of FST is flattery
• ~ most imp contribution is what he writes about preceding Sultans
• Accounts are analytical and critical, biases are religious outlook, personal discomfiture, class consciousness, aristocratic complexion.
• Fatwa I Jahandari is complementary to previous work
• ~ Deals with powers and functions of crown, privileges of nobility, doctrine of safety of state, law and order problem, crime, religion, politics.

Amir Khusrau

• Khazainul Futuh : Details of conquest by Allauddin Khalji
• Tuti e Hind, rep Indo-Muslim culture
• Hindavi/Urdu
• ~ Wrote masnavis
• Use of hyperbole poetry, literary compositions, does not distort facts like Barani
• Does not follow chronology, factual mistakes
• ~ Nuh Sipir a masnavi shows his love for India
• Also wrote Mifthul Futuh, Dewal Rani Khizr Khani - authentic sources of Khilji dynasty
• 1st prominent rep of Indo Muslim culture, took pride in his country
• Turkish ancestry Settled in Etah, UP
• ~ Contact w/ Nizamuddin Auliya gave him title of Turkallah - Turk of God
• Hindi or Zaban I Hindi had no comparison w/ Arabic Language
• Founding fathers of Hindi language, literature dev poems, couplets, riddles, other popular sayings
• ~ Rekhta was mixture or hotchpotch of Persian and Hindi

Dev of Urdu Language

• @ Most significant dev in literary field during AK reign
• Linguistic mingling b/w H, M brought by pressures of natural laws
• Amir Khusrau first spokesman
• Dehlavi was earliest dialect
• @ Urdu means horde used as derogatory epithet for Mongol troops, became popular among the soldiery, populace of Delhi.
• Theories of Origin
  • Seeds in NW India Punjab under Ghaznavids
  • Hariyanvi, Kahri Boli in Delhi during that time influence develop of Hindavi/Dehlavi during Khusrau's days.
  • Further enriched by Brajbhasha, Rajasthani.
  • Zaban I Urdu or language of the army dev as synthesis of Persian, Arabic and various above mentioned dialects.
• & Khusrau took initiative to use Persian script for it
• & Hindu writers used Devanagri script
• M scholars used Persian, Arabic vocabulary, copied syntax, similies, themes from these languages and gave it a literary form
• Dehlavi assumed the name of Hindi later

Urdu in Deccan

• U never patronised by sultans of Delhi
• Reached as language of troops after penetration by Khalji's armies
• @ Court language of Bahmanids, Bijapur and Golconda
• Successors of Quli Qutub Shah patronised Dakhini Urdu.
• $ Nusrati who lived during 17th century wrote a tale about Manohar and Madhu Malati called Gulshan e Ishq. During the reign of Adil Shahi rule

Hindus Undertake Study of Persian

• Initial 200 yrs stayed away from it
• Political exigency, to secure gainful employment was undertaken
• Kayastha's took initiative

Literature in Regional Languages of North India

• Regional religious and secular literature developed in higher learning centres.
• ~ University of Mithila - Vidyapati authored Maithili songs
• ~ University of Nadia - Halayudha wrote Smriti Sarvasva, Nyaya Sarvasva
  • Jayadeva wrote Gita Govinda
• Liberal patronage to Sanskrit under Zainul Abedin aka Akbar of Kashmir
• Ratnavajra - translated 14 Sanskrit works to Tibetan
• Hemachandra Suri in Sanskrit and Prakrit
• Hindi, Bengali, Marathi originated during the 8th cent. Buddhists, Jains, Nath Panthi siddhas used apabhramsa.
• Amir Khusrau notes various laguages such as Sindhi, Lahori, Kashmiri, Kubari/Dogri, Dhur Samudri/Karnataka, Tilangi/Telugu, Gujar/Gujarati, Mabari/Tamil etc. Their rise was striking feature of medieval period.
• ~ Marathi was adm lang in Bahmani kingdom and later at Bijapur court.
• Nusrat Shah of Bengal had Mahabharat and R translated in bengali.
• Sufi saints like Mulla Daud wrote Chandayan in Hindi. Malik Muhammad Jaisi wrote Prithvirajraso.

Literature in Regional Languages of South India

• todo Tamil Literature
• Golden period ended w/ decline of Cholas.
• & Villiputturar 13th century was an imp poet translated Mahabharata was called Bharatam. Introduced use of Sanskrit words in T poetry.
• & Arunagirinatha was another poet. Composed Tiruppagal praising god Murugan.
• Vaishnava scholars wrote commentaries. Other commentaries were written on works of Sangam age ex Tolkapiyam.
• Kachiappa Sivachariar composed Kanda puranam in praise of God Subramanya

Telugu

• @ Errapragada 14th cent was most imp poet. Popularised Champu genre of literary writing, composed Ramayana in Champu style. Also translated part of MB and Vaishnava sanskrit works like Harivamsha.
• Srinatha 14th century translated Naishadha kavya of Sriharsha. Laid foundation of classical prabandhas in Telugu literature.
• Potana translated Bhavata Purana.
• @ Reached zenith under Vijayanagara king Krishnadeva Raya. KDR wrote Amukya Malyada, patronised poets like Peddanai Peddana who wrote Manu Charita in Telugu. important
• Influence of Sanskrit inc.

Kannada

• Upto 12th cent was dominated by Jain writers.
• Virasaivism started influencing after 13th cent.
• Vachana works of Basava. Bhima Kavi composed basava Purana in 14th cent.
• Harisvara and Raghavanka were other Virasaiva poets.
• ~ Hoysala rulers patronised it.
• Rudra Bhatta wrote Jagannathavija in Champu lit based on Vishnu Puran.
• Vijayanagara kings also patronised K lit ex Kumaravyasa who composed K version of MB.

Malyalam Lit

• Youngest South lang.
• Separated from Tamil and acquired independent form in 14th cent.
• New political forms introduced by foreigners contributed to its dev.
• Earliest lit comp was Rama Charitam.
• 16th cent onwards came under influence of Sanskrit.

Sultanate Architecture and New Structural Forms

Features of the Indo Islamic and Indo Saracenic Architecture

• use of arch and domes known as 'arcuade' style and replaced 'Trabeat' style.
• introduced the use of minars around the mosques, mausoleums
• Mortar cementing agent
• avoided the use of human and animal figures
• spaciousness, massiveness and breadth
• calligraphy as decoration
• Arabesque method use of geometrical vegetal ornamentation with multiples splits
• Geometrical Symmetry in designs
• buildings had intricate jaali works, which signifies the importance of light in Islamic religion
• Water was used in the premises in forms of courtyard pools, fountains, for ablations etc
• introduced the Charbagh style of gardening
• pietra-dura - inlay of precious stones and gems into stone walls
• use of foreshortening technique in the buildings, such that the inscriptions appear to be closer than it really is

Imperial Style of Architecture during the Delhi Sultanate

Slave Dynasty

• During the slave/ilbari dynasty Mameluke style was popular
• ~ remodellings of the existing Hindu structures was done
• ! Monuments like Qutub Minar and Quwat ul Islam mosque made
• Arhai Din Ka Jhonpra in Ajmer both built by Aibak.

Khalji Dynasty

• During the Khalji dynasty Seljuk style of arch used
• use of Red sandstone
• Arcuade style got prominence and use of Mortar began
• ! Ex Alai Darwaza and Siri Fort

Tughlaq Dynasty

• Tughlaq dynasty was crisis period
• use of grey sandstone with emphasis on strength rather decoration
• combined both archuate and lintel method to construct batter characterised by sloping walls.

Lodi Dynasty

• ~ Lodi Dynasty only tombs were made, architecture was not that prominent.
• @ One imp feature was the introduction of double domes consisted of a hollow dome inside a top dome.
• this was done to give strength and lower the inner height of the dome.
• Tombs were hard and bare without decoration, supported by a sloping verandah.

Painting

Miniature Art during Delhi Sultanate

• Persian elements merged with Indian Traditional elements.
• Preference to illustrated manuscripts were given.
• Ex Nimatnama a book on cookery made during the reign of Nasir Shah of Mandu.
• Lodi Khuladar style was also popular in areas if Delhi and Jaunpur.

Evolution of Composite Culture

• Turkish rulers were not barbarians and had inherited the cultural and administrative standards set by the Abbasid caliphate.
• They inherited IN's rich tradition in the field of architecture, literature, forms of govt or S&T.
• Contact b/w Hinduism, Buddhist amd Islam had started before the coming of Islam to IN.
• Difference b/w both religions made the process of rapproachment slow. Conflicts also went side by side w/ rapproachment. Culture <code data-line="0" class="language-ad-views is-loaded">- **Tarachand** says that social and cultural revivalism in the south was due to impact of Islamic culture. - **YP Singh** mentions that the 1st stage was duration of Islamic rule in IN which was marked by conflict, tension, adaptation and cultural syncretism. - Impact was both positive and Negative as suggested by HV Srinivas and SV Kamath </code><button class="copy-code-button"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="svg-icon lucide-copy"><rect x="8" y="8" width="14" height="14" rx="2" ry="2"></rect><path d="M4 16c-1.1 0-2-.9-2-2V4c0-1.1.9-2 2-2h10c1.1 0 2 .9 2 2"></path></svg></button> Architecture Music Language ex Urdu. Persian was readily adopted by Hindus who participated in the adm of M rulers.

Embedded from 2.2 Religion › Impact of arrival of Islam on Society Culture Polity Arts and Religion › Culture

Impact on Society

Negative Impact

KM Panikkar : Split IN society vertically which made their assimilation difficult. Which was not the case w/ Buddhism and Jainism.

• @ Proselytization strengthened the bond of conservatism in the orthodox cirlces.
• Purdah system further degraded position of women in IN.
• ! Female infanticide adopted by Hindus to avoid risk of losing their chastity to Muslims.
• Stregthened Child marriage to avoid kidnapping of them and Sati system.
• Slavery which was rare in society became a common sight. Many Men, Women, Children were sold as slaves.
• Caste system became rigid since H now felt to protect their religion from forcible conversions. Strict caste rules were made.
• Forcible conversion further degraded position of lower sections. Who were illtreated at the hand of upper sections of both M and Hindus.

Positive Impact

• Brought concept of human equality, legal system, universal brotherhood -> led to liberal H religious movts. Which also influence Bhakti saints ex Kabir, Nanak, Chaitanya.
• Influenced the art of warfare, recreation etc. Food such as Biryani, kabab etc adopted.
• Music influenced through instruments viz Tabla, Iranian Tambura and Sitar.
• New Architectural means

Culture

• Architecture
• Music
• Language ex Urdu. Persian was readily adopted by Hindus who participated in the adm of M rulers.

Polity

Arts

Religion

PYQs

Culture

1. Where, when and how did Urdu originate? [1985, 20m]

1. "The period of Delhi Sultans witnessed the emergence of Indo-Persian culture." Discuss the statement with reference to developments m the fields of language. [1986, 60m]

1. Write a short essay on: "Indo-Islamic architecture during the Khalji and Tughluq period." [1992, 20m]

1. Write a short essay on: "Ziauddin Barani as a historian." [1994, 20m]

1. Comment on: "Growth of regional languages and literature during the medieval period." [1995, 20m]

1. Write a short essay on: "Amir Khusrau was an eminent poet not a historian." [2000, 20m]

1. Give a critical assessment of the contributions of Amir Khusarau and Barani to Indo -Persian Literature. [2009, 30m]

1. Critically evaluate the educational development during Sultanate period. [2013, 15m]

1. Trace the technological and stylistic development in the architecture of the Sultanate period. [2014, 15m]

1. Do you think that the economic measures introduced by the Sultanate rulers were beneficial to the common people as well? Illustrate with examples. [2016, 20 Marks]

1. Evaluate the contents of the Tabaqat-i-Nasiri as a source of medieval history. [2016, 10 Marks]

1. Describe the new architecture features added by successive Sultans in the construction of Tombs in India. [2018, 20 Marks]