3.1 Origin, Date and Extent
Origin
- Sources of Harappan History - archaeologists like Sir John Marshall and Sir Mortimer Wheeler have conducted excavations.
- Harappa discovered by Charles Masson in 1826. It was visited by Alexander Cunningham but he was not able to identify it exactly. John Marshall declared the finding of the civilization in 1924.
Date
- 5500-3500 BC - Neolithic : areas were Kili Gul Muhammad, Mehrgarh
- Early Harappan 3200-2600 BC :
- Use of copper, wheel and plough.
- Extra-ordinary range of pottery forms showing beginning of many regional traditions.
- Evidence of granary, defensive walls, and long distance trade. Emergence of uniformities in the pottery tradition.
- Origins of motifs viz Pipal, humped bulls, Cobras, horned deity etc.
- The 2 things lacking in pre/Early Harappan phase was large cities and increased levels of craft specialization.
- Mature Harappan : 2600-1900 BC :
- Emergence of large cities, uniform types of bricks, weights, seals, beads and pottery.
- Planned township and long distance trade.
- Late Harappan :
- 1900-1300 BC : sites abandoned.
- Interregional exchange Harappan declines.
- Writing and city life abandoned.
Extent
- Most of the Harappan settlements are located in Harappa, Ghaggar, Mohenjodaro axis.
- Kachhi plains to the west of the Indus system is in the transitional zone of the Iranian borderlands Nausharo, Judei rjodaro and Ali-Murad sites have been reported from this area.
- eastern borderlands of the Harappan Civilization are represented by such settlements as Bargaon, Manpur and Alamgirpur in U.P. These were the wheat growing areas.
- Manda in Jammu-and Ropar in Punjab represent the northern extremities/ Shortughai northernmost
- The settlements of Daimabad in Maharashtra and Bhagatrav in Gujarat might have southern frontier. grew rice and mullets.
Early Harappan Period
Origin of Agriculture
- Mehrgarh - wheat, barley, cotton and dates and tending sheep, goat and cattle
- agriculturists learnt to exploit highly fertile flood plains of Indus leading to sudden inc in villages and settlements.
- gradually learnt to exploit the Indus plains and to control the flooding of the Indus
Sites
- Baluchistan : pastoral nomads who moved from one place to another in the search of greener pastures.
- Khyber, Gomal and Bolan acted as highways of traffic for nomads, merchants, warriors etc
- Mundigak seems to have been located on a trade route in southern Afghanistan was an imp site. evidence of a defensive wall with square bastions of sun dried bricks large building with rows of pillars, variety of pottery, pottery motifs showing birds, ibex, bull and pipal trees. Lapis Lazuli and other semi-precious stones show the interaction with Iran.
- Damb Sadaat : use of clay seals, copper objects. Rana Ghundai shows finely made pottery painted with humped bulls. Both located 100km south-east of Kile Gul Mohammad.
- Central and Southern Baluchistan : sites like Anjira, Togau, Nindowari and Balakot. evidences of contact with Persian Gulf
- Amri : house of stone and mud brick, granary also, Humped bull motif, settlement was fortified
- Kot Diji : massive defensive wall, were using a wheel-thrown pottery having decorations of plain bands of dark brownish paint. Kot-Diji variety of pottery is found here
- Mehrgarh : seals and sealings have been reported, used by merchants for guaranteeing the quality of goods that were being sent to faraway lands or for identification. Pottery similar to Damb Saadat. large number of female terracotta figurine similar to the ones found in Zhob Valley.
- Rahman Dheri : large number of graffiti found on the pot sherds could be the forerunners of the Harappan script
- Tarkai Qila : harvesting have also been found and wide variety of wheat, barley and other grains.
- Kalibangan : remarkable find was that of a ploughed field surface
- Evidence of fire and burning was found at Kot Diji, Gumla, Amri and Nausharo.
- Horse remains were reported from Harappa, Lothal, Surkotada, Kuntasi and Kalibangan and at superficial levels at Mohenjodaro.
- Recent evidence of Dairy production from Kotada Bhadli in Gujarat
The Beginning of Civilisation
- exploitation of vast fertile tracts of Indus led to surplus creation leading to an increase in population.
- Surplus also gave an impetus to demand of non-agricultural commodities.
- Slow social stratification gave the need for the upper class to own precious goods further increasing trade to long distances.
- Surplus creation -> Surplus appropriation -> Inc Population -> Social Stratification.
- This is how the civilization began.
Mature Harappan Sites
- Harappa : first site to be excavated, there are no clusters of sites around Harappa, substantial people were engaged in activities apart from food production, it was located in the midst of some important trade routes which are still in use
- Mohenjodaro : people lived here for a very long time and went on building and rebuilding houses at the same location. There is a large deposit of silt in the site due to floods.
- Kalibangan : Pre-Harappan and Harappan habitations
- Lothal : outpost for sea-trade with West Asian societies, presence of dockyard has been observed.
- Sutkagen-Dor : had a citadel surrounded by a stone wall for defence. Could have been used as a sea-port for trading.
Continuity of H Civ to Modern Indian Practices
OptionalPYQ
- Tilaka or Tikka a type of decorative jewellery worn by young girls can be seen in terracotta figurines of H civ.
- Dancing girl bronze sculpture can be seen wearing bangles which is still prevalent in India.
- Waist Chain or Bellychain aka Kamarband worn by women is also seen in terracotta figurines.
- Anklets
- Swastikas in H seals and sealings.
- Bathing Platforms like in Mohenjodaro. Ritual bathing continued such as Kumbh mela.
- Yogic practices : Pashupati seals and other terracotta figurines. Namaste posture.
- Fire altars of Banawali and Kalibangan are still used in Hindu worshipping practices.
- Expertise in town planning, water management, harvesting systems, drainage mechanism.
- Public and private wells
- Standardised weights and bricks. Burnt bricks.
- First ones to use Silk and Lost wax technique
Embedded from 3.2 Characteristics , Decline, Survival and Significance › Survival
Malik and Possehl focused their attention on various aspects of continuity of the Harappan tradition
- Jhukar pottery in use in Amri, Chanhudaro, Jhukar etc have shown similarity to the Mature Harappan pottery.
- Metal objects here have shown contact with central asian and Iranian influences viz axes, copper pins, shaft hole etc and circular stamp seals.
- Indo Iranian borderlands show the use of copper stand seals and copper shaft hole axes in sites like Mundigak, Nausharo and Pirak indicating contact with Iran
- In Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana sites like Mitathal, Bara, Ropar and Siswal have shown Ochre coloured pottery.
- In Kutch and Saurashtra places like Rangapur and Somnath have shown continuity in ceramic traditions.
- These harappan settlements would have merged with the regional and local settlements of the area and slowly the regional cultures of pottery etc replaced the Harappan ones.
- The cults of Pasupati (Siva) and of the mother goddess and phallic worship seem to have come down to us from the Harappan tradition.
- the cult of sacred places, rivers or trees and sacred animals show a distinct continuity in the subsequent historic civilization of India. The evidence of fire worship and sacrifice in Kalibangan and Lothal is significant
- traditional weight and currency system of India, based on a ratio of sixteen as the unit, was already present in the Harappan civilization
- techniques Bf making potter's wheel in modern India is similar to those used by the Harappans
- Bullock carts and boats used in modem India were already present in the Harappan cities
Embedded page: harappa.com
PYQs
- Assess the pattern of settlement, economy, social organization and religion of India during 2000 to 500 BC from archaeological evidences. [2003, 60m]
- Late Harappa 2000-1500 BC ; Vedic Period 1500 - 500 BC as the Vedic Period. The Vedic period is associated with the PGW culture. 600 BC onwards also saw the emergence of Mahajanapadas. Chalcolithic culture also overlapped during this time.
- Extent : PGW culture extent and Late Harappan Extent from archaeological excavation
- Religion : At NBPW levels of Pushkalvati a fireplace was excavated in the courtyards of one of the rooms.
- Economy : Refer Anki map sites
- Social Organisation : Refer anki map sites
During the period of 2000 to 500 BC, India saw the emergence of several advanced ancient urban cultures, including the Indus Valley Civilization, the Vedic Civilization and the emergence of the Mahajanapadas. The pattern of settlement, economy, social organization and religion of these cultures can be inferred from archaeological evidences.
Pattern of settlement: During this period, there were two main types of settlements: urban and rural. The Indus Valley Civilization, for example, was characterized by large, planned cities with well-laid-out streets and advanced drainage systems. The Vedic Civilization, on the other hand, was characterized by smaller, rural settlements, with people living in small villages and practicing agriculture and animal husbandry.
Economy: The Indus Valley Civilization is believed to have had a highly developed economy, with evidence of trade and commerce, as well as the use of a standardized system of weights and measures. The Vedic Civilization, on the other hand, is believed to have had a more agrarian-based economy, with a strong emphasis on cattle-rearing and the use of iron tools for agriculture.
Social organization: The Indus Valley Civilization is believed to have had a highly advanced social organization, with a complex system of governance and administration, as well as a well-defined social hierarchy. The Vedic Civilization, on the other hand, is believed to have had a more egalitarian social organization, with a strong emphasis on the patriarchal family unit and the caste system.
Religion: The Indus Valley Civilization is believed to have had a complex system of religious beliefs and practices, with evidence of the worship of a mother goddess and the use of seals depicting various religious symbols. The Vedic Civilization is believed to have had a more polytheistic religious system, with the worship of various gods and goddesses and the performance of ritual sacrifices.
- Was India civilized before the advent of the Aryans? State briefly the extent and striking features of the earlier civilization, if any. [1982, 20m]
- Extent -
- Refer ANKI
- Striking features from Polity Administration, Religion Culture, Society, Trade/Economy
India was civilized before the advent of the Aryans. Evidence of this can be found in the Indus Valley Civilization, which was an advanced Bronze Age culture that flourished in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent from c. 3300–1300 BCE. The Indus Valley Civilization was the first known urban culture of the Indian subcontinent, and it was among the world’s first civilizations.
The striking features of the Indus Valley Civilization include the development of a complex urban culture, the use of a writing system, the development of metallurgy, the development of a sophisticated drainage system, and the widespread use of seals. The Indus Valley Civilization also had a highly organized social structure, with distinct classes of people, and a complex religious system.
- "The Indus civilization did not have an abrupt appearance." Discuss the statement. How does the Indus civilization stand, in view of its geographical expansion and chronology, in relations to the Vedic civilization? [1990, 60m]
- Theories of Sudden Decline -
- Extent of Harappa Sites and PGW sites comparison
- Chronology of Harappan culture :
- Chronology of Vedic Civ 1500 BC - 800 BC
The Indus civilization, also known as the Harappan civilization, was one of the earliest civilizations in the world and existed from around 3300 BCE to 1500 BCE. It was located in the region of what is now Pakistan and northwest India. The Indus civilization was a highly developed urban civilization with a complex economy, advanced technology, and a sophisticated urban planning system.
The Indus civilization did not have an abrupt appearance, as is evidenced by archaeological evidence that suggests that the civilization had been in existence for a long time prior to its emergence in 3300 BCE. This suggests that the Indus civilization was the result of a gradual process of development, rather than a sudden emergence.
In terms of its geographical expansion, the Indus civilization was the largest of the four ancient civilizations in the ancient world, covering an area of 1.25 million square kilometers. This area included parts of modern-day Pakistan, India, Afghanistan, and Iran. The Indus civilization was also the most expansive in terms of its chronology, with evidence of its existence dating back to 3300 BCE.
In terms of its relationship to the Vedic civilization, the Indus civilization is believed to have been the predecessor of the Vedic civilization, which emerged in the Indian subcontinent in the late 2nd millennium BCE. Although the Indus civilization predates the Vedic civilization, there is evidence of cultural contact between the two civilizations, with the Indus civilization having an influence on the Vedic culture. For example, the Indus civilization is believed to have been the source of the Vedic religion, which is based on the worship of various gods and goddesses.